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Oral cancer; Etiology; Pathogenesis; Diagnosis; Treatment; Risk factors; Imaging; Biomarkers; Surgery; Radiotherapy; Chemotherapy; Immunotherapy; Personalized medicine

Introduction

Oral cancer represents a significant and growing global health burden, with substantial implications for patient morbidity and mortality [1]. Despite advances in diagnostic and therapeutic modalities, the prognosis for oral cancer remains poor, underscoring the urgent need for improved understanding and management strategies. This comprehensive review aims to synthesize the latest research findings and clinical developments in the field of oral cancer, with a focus on etiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment [2,3]. Oral cancer represents a significant global health challenge, with increasing incidence rates and substantial impacts on patient morbidity and mortality [4]. Despite advancements in medical and dental sciences, the prognosis for oral cancer patients remains guarded, necessitating ongoing research efforts to enhance our understanding of the disease and improve treatment outcomes. This comprehensive review aims to provide a thorough examination of recent progress in the understanding, diagnosis, and management of oral cancer, highlighting emerging trends, innovative strategies, and future directions in the field [5]. As one of the most prevalent cancers worldwide, oral cancer imposes a considerable burden on healthcare systems and society as a whole. Factors such as tobacco use, alcohol consumption, betel quid chewing, and human papillomavirus (HPV) infection contribute to its etiology, while genetic predisposition and molecular alterations further complicate the disease landscape [6]. Understanding the complex interplay of these risk factors and molecular mechanisms is essential for developing targeted prevention and treatment strategies tailored to individual patient needs [7]. In recent years, significant advancements have been made in the early detection and diagnosis of oral cancer, enabling clinicians to identify lesions at precancerous and early stages when treatment is most effective. Novel diagnostic modalities, including advanced imaging techniques, molecular biomarkers, and artificial intelligence algorithms, hold promise for improving diagnostic accuracy and facilitating personalized treatment approaches [8]. Furthermore, advances in genomic profiling and molecular characterization have shed light on the molecular heterogeneity of oral cancers, paving the way for precision medicine initiatives and targeted therapies. Treatment modalities for oral cancer have also evolved rapidly, with multimodal approaches combining surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy to achieve optimal outcomes [9]. Surgical techniques have become increasingly refined, allowing for precise tumor resection while preserving critical anatomical structures and functions. Radiation therapy techniques, including intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) and proton therapy, offer improved tumor targeting and reduced toxicity compared to conventional approaches. Additionally, the advent of targeted therapies and immunotherapies has revolutionized the treatment landscape, offering new hope for patients with advanced or recurrent disease [10]. Despite these advancements, challenges remain in the effective management of oral cancer, including late-stage diagnosis, treatment-related toxicities, and the development of resistance to therapy. Addressing these challenges requires a multifaceted approach, encompassing enhanced screening and early detection efforts, innovative treatment strategies, and supportive care interventions to improve patient quality of life. By fostering interdisciplinary collaborations and leveraging cutting-edge technologies, we can continue to advance our understanding and management of oral cancer, ultimately reducing its burden on individuals and society. This review aims to synthesize the latest evidence and insights in the field, providing a comprehensive resource for clinicians, researchers, and policymakers dedicated to combating this complex disease.

Etiology and pathogenesis

The development of oral cancer is a multifactorial process influenced by a complex interplay of genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors. Tobacco use, including smoking and smokeless tobacco products, remains the leading cause of oral cancer, accounting for a significant proportion of cases worldwide. Alcohol consumption, particularly when combined with tobacco use, further increases the risk of oral cancer. Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, particularly HPV type 16, has emerged as a significant risk factor for oropharyngeal cancers, with implications for prognosis and treatment response. Additionally, genetic predisposition and molecular alterations contribute to the carcinogenesis process, including mutations in tumor suppressor genes and oncogenes, as well as epigenetic modifications.

Diagnosis

Early detection of oral cancer is critical for improving patient outcomes, yet diagnosis often occurs at advanced stages when treatment options are limited and prognosis is poor. Clinical examination remains the primary method for identifying suspicious lesions, with particular attention to factors such as size, location, and appearance. However, adjunctive diagnostic modalities are increasingly being utilized to enhance diagnostic accuracy and inform treatment decisions. Imaging techniques, including computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and positron emission tomography (PET), provide valuable information about tumor extent and involvement of adjacent structures. Moreover, molecular biomarkers, such as DNA mutations, gene expression profiles, and protein markers, hold promise for aiding in early detection and prognostication of oral cancer. Emerging technologies, including liquid biopsy and artificial intelligence, offer novel approaches for non-invasive diagnosis and personalized risk assessment.

Treatment

The management of oral cancer requires a multidisciplinary approach, integrating surgical, radiation, medical oncology, and supportive care interventions. Surgery remains the primary treatment modality for localized disease, with the goal of complete tumor resection while preserving form and function. Radiotherapy, either alone or in combination with chemotherapy, is commonly used for advanced-stage disease or as adjuvant therapy following surgery. Chemotherapy, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy agents have shown efficacy in select patient populations, offering new avenues for treatment optimization and personalized medicine approaches. Palliative care plays a crucial role in managing symptoms and improving quality of life for patients with advanced or metastatic disease.

Conclusion

Despite advances in understanding and management, significant challenges remain in the field of oral cancer, including late-stage diagnosis, treatment-related toxicities, and the emergence of treatment-resistant disease. Future research efforts should focus on elucidating the molecular mechanisms driving oral carcinogenesis, identifying novel therapeutic targets, and developing innovative treatment strategies. Moreover, efforts to improve early detection through enhanced screening programs and public awareness campaigns are essential for reducing the burden of oral cancer. By leveraging multidisciplinary collaborations and embracing innovative technologies, we can continue to advance the field of oral oncology and improve outcomes for patients affected by this devastating disease.

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