黑料网

Climate change; Health impacts; Parameter; Physiochemical; Solan; Temperature; Vulnerability; Water borne diseases

Introduction

Water is the most important part of environment and sustenance of life on the planet earth is due to its availability [1,2]. Earth’s surface consists of 71% of water for which it is often called as blue planet. Increase in population, Industrial growth leading to shift in population for employment from rural to urban areas, high energy consumption, increase in consumption of water in agriculture and industry, fresh water is scarcely available [3].

Second factor that is creating a burden on water resources is change in climatic conditions. It is a change in the distribution of the patterns of weather if those changes take longer (e.g., decades to millions of years). Water quality and human health can be directly linked to each other. Around 1.8 billion people drink feces-contaminated water, putting them at risk of developing cholera, dysentery, typhoid, hepatitis A, and polio (WHO and UNICEF report).

According to statistics, almost 1 billion people do not have access to safe drinking water, and 5 million people die each year as a result of water-related diseases. The Inter-national Panel for Climate Change (IPCC) has research that the global surface temperature has increased by 0.74°C during 1906-2005 [4]. Climate change show changes in weather patterns, which affect temperature, wind patterns, weather, etc. These changes impact humans by increasing the occurrence of natural disasters, misery, diseases and other health related serious issues. The quality of water and water ecosystems can be altered directly or indirectly through various biochemical processes that can occur due to Climate change [5-11].

Furthermore, the specific effects will depend on topography, types of water bodies [7,8]. Waterborne illness is caused when a pathogen enters a water supply by drinking water or indirectly from eating contaminated food. Outbreaks of water-borne diseases generally occur after a major weather event like rain and snowfall. Anthropogenic activities are the main cause of climate change, which is known as global warming. Organic compounds like oil and pesticides also endanger water quality [9].

Climate change increases the severity and frequency of certain important weather events, people mostly in developing countries can face the risk of diseases. Pathogens like, protozoa’s viruses and bacteria, water-soluble radioactive substances, ions like NO3-, PO43-, SO42-, F-, Ca2+, Mg2+ and inorganic pollutants like salts, acids and toxic metals are considered as the major water pollutants [10-19].

In the lowlands of the Himalayan region, incidents of water borne diseases such as dysentery, typhoid, Shigellosis, cholera and hepatitis continue to be regularly reported. The present study is done to access water quality parameters in Surface and ground water and to access its impact on human health.

Studies show that there is a considerable increase of the stress of Water borne diseases resulting from climate changes and particularly from droughts, floods, increase of temperature with regards to factors as cyan toxins, microbial pathogen and chemicals [20]. There is a link between diarrhea and temperature, according to studies. With changes in climatic circumstances, heavy rainfall, drought, flooding, and meteorological events will become more common [21,22].

Solan district of Himachal Pradesh situated in north side of India is rapidly urbanizing. Due to widespread presence of industries in whole districts, there is a burden of gastroenteritis, hepatitis, waterborne diarrheal disease in the area [16]. So, there is a need to do assessment of the quality of water sources of the region. According to World Health Organization, Monitoring and surveillances play an important role in determining epidemiology of water borne diseases [17].

In this study, an attempt was made to assess Surface water samples collected from Ashwini and Giri rivers for physiochemical and Microbial parameters Legionella and Vibrio Cholerae. Parameters were compared with BIS standards. Groundwater sampling was done from six sampling sites for assessing physiochemical parameters. Lastly, a health survey was also done in 12 blocks of Solan District by collecting data from the Chief Medical officer’s office to assess the disease burden of the area.

The impact of water quality parameters on health

Quality parameters are chemical, physical, and biological properties of water that can be monitored. Water quality parameters are classified into 3 types.

Parameters that are usually monitored to access quality of water are pH, temperature, turbidity, color, odor, taste, electrical conductivity, solids. Acidity, alkalinity, chloride, sulphate, nitrogen, fluoride, iron, manganese, hardness, sodium, potassium, lead, chromium, biochemical oxygen demand (bod), chemical oxygen demand (cod), bacteria, algae, viruses, and protozoa are all examples of dissolved oxygen (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Classification of water quality parameters.

Biological and Chemical reactions in water depends on temperature. Processes like BOD, COD, Solubility, viscosity etc. are temperature dependent. There is a limited Research on the impact of drinking cold or hot water on human health. Temperature of 23° C is suitable in all weather conditions for proper hydration of human body [23-25]. Pure water is clear and transparent.

Turbidity is due to presence of suspended materials in water. It can affect treatment processes by providing space for disease causing microorganism to hide from disinfection. Turbidity is measured by Turbidimeter.

The property of water to allow Electrical current to pass through it, is called Electrical conductivity. It is directly proportional to ionic concentration. Pure water is considered bad conductor. Sea water has high conductivity due to presence of salts in it. It is an important parameter in groundwater monitoring to identify saltwater intrusion, while in checking the freshwater quality it is also helpful. Measurement of the electrical conductivity of a solution is done by electrolysis.

Total suspended solids (TSS) and total dissolved solids (TDS) are two types of solids found in water (TDS). By passing water through filter paper, they may be quantified. Solids left on filter paper are Total suspended solids. Filtered water when evaporated, the solids obtained as residue are total dissolved solids. These parameters are of utmost importance in water treatment process. Values of Total dissolved solids not within prescribed limits will have adverse impacts on human health [12].

pH determines whether water is acidic or basic in nature. It ranges from 0 to 14. Value less than 7 indicates solution is acidic and more than 7 indicate solution is basic, while 7 is considered neutral. pH of 6.5-8.5 is considered safe for drinking water. Highly acidic and alkaline water lead to gastrointestinal, the irritation of skin, eyes [13]. Acidity led to corrosion; highly acidic water can easily dissolve heavy metals such as lead. High Alkalinity indicates presence of chemicals in water.

The chloride (Cl-) toxicity is not seen in humans [13] however high concentrations of chloride can taste salty to most people. The sodium content of table salt can cause heart and kidney diseases.

High concentrations of Sulphate ions may impart unwanted tastes or laxative effects, but impact on human health is not much evident.

Nitrogen is found in water and wastewater in the four forms. High nitrate in surface water degrades the water quality by stimulating the growth of the algae. It reacts with hemoglobin in blood and reduce its ability to carry oxygen thereby leading to methemoglobinemia or “blue baby syndrome”.

Eutrophication is caused by an overabundance of phosphate and nitrogen in water, particularly due to runoff from the land. Fertilizer and livestock manure lead to dense plant growth and animal death owing to a shortage of oxygen. Algal blooms, fish fatalities, inedible shellfish, and blue algae were all caused by eutrophication, severely limiting the use of water for drinking, food harvesting, cleaning, and recreation. Small amount of fluoride in water help in preventing decay of tooth in children. Increase in amount of fluoride leads to dental fluorosis. Excess excessive iron results in high risk of carcinogenesis [13]. Impact of Manganese on human health is not evident expect it can impart bitter taste to water. Drinking hard water can lead to cardiovascular diseases, failure of reproductive system [24]. The concentration of Sodium greater than 20 ppm is not good [25]. Infants are more vulnerable to incorrect potassium ion excretion due to their inadequate renal reserve and immature kidney function [4]. High BOD means less availability of oxygen thus impacting aquatic organisms. Bacteria are unicellular organisms. Waterborne diseases like shigellosis, cholera, leptospirosis, paratyphoid fever, tularemia, and typhoid [15]. Protozoa are unicellular organisms [18]. They form lumps that cannot be treated by disinfection. Long-term high-level exposure can seriously harm the brain, reproductive system, and kidneys. Exposure is more in pregnant women, infants and young children. Chromium (Cr) can cause respiratory carcinogenicity, gastrointestinal disorders, genotoxic effects, cardiovascular shock, and mutagenicity [19].

Higher concentration of dissolved Oxygen indicates good quality of water. It is important factor in determining water quality [23]. Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is important factor in determining need for oxygen in water. Microorganisms present in water use organic substances for food [14] (Table 1).

Table 1: Permissible Limit of water quality parameters for drinking and domestic Purpose.

Materials and Methods

Study area

Solan is situated in the outer Himalayas forming part of the Siwaliks and lies between 30° 54' 16.1496'' N latitude and 77° 5' 48.2388'' E longitude in the Solan district of Himachal Pradesh (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Solan district in Himachal Pradesh.

Major parts of the Solan district are hilly and mountainous with highly dissected and undulating terrain. The area lies in the drainage basin of river Satluj; marked by the presence of alluvial deposits of quaternary age which are deposited in sets of terraces by the river Sirsa and the various seasonal tributaries of the river viz. Balad Nadi, Chikni Khad, Chota Khopta Nallah, Pula Nallah, Jattawala Nallah, Sandholi Nallah etc., have dissected these deposits into low-lying plains/flood plains. Solan is located 46 kilometers south of the state's capital, Shimla. Ashwani Khad enters District Solan upstream of Village Sadhupul. The catchment area in District Solan mainly comprises villages i.e., Kohari, Ded, Galai, Mathia, Shanbar, Andi, Sunnu Tikri, Bayela, Jalkhara, Dawarli and exits District Solan at Village Gaura near Yashwantnagar. The total stretch of Ashwani Khad in District Solan is approx. 22 Km. The Ashwani Khad meets River Giri at Village Gaura in Yashwantnagar. There is no industrial area in the entire stretch of Ashwani Khad in Solan District from Sadhupul till it meets River Giri at Yashwant Nagar. Yashwant Nagar falls in Sirmour district of Himachal Pradesh (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Sampling site for Ashwini River.

Giri River is also famous as “Giri Ganga” and is an important river that feeds the Yamuna River. Giri River originates from the hills of Kotkhai and drains at the parts of Himachal in the southeastern areas. It flows through the district of Sirmaur and further merges with the Yamuna River (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Sampling site for Giri River.

S

Sampling sites and collection of samples

Surface water sample of Giri river collected upstream of Drinking Water Works at Yashwant Nagar village near Solan and likewise water sample of Ashwani river collected upstream of Drinking Water Works near Shambar village which is 20 Km above the confluence Ashwani river with Giri river.

Groundwater sampling from 6 sampling sites was carried out in March 2019 across the Solan district in Himachal Pradesh (Table 2).

Table 2: Geo-coordinates of the six sampling sites.

Determination of different physicochemical parameters

Water quality is assessed for physiochemical parameters according to the standard methods outlined in IS 3025. the results obtained from the physicochemical and microbiological attributes were compared with the drinking water guidelines set by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) (Table 3).

Table 3: Blocks for Monitoring Disease burden.

Data collection

Data for waterborne diseases were collected from chief medical officer Solan, for 12 blocks in Solan from 2014 to 2018.

Results and Discussions

Surface water sampling

Surface water samples were collected from the Ashwini and Giri rivers. Physiochemical parameters such as pH, turbidity, color, Total Hardness, Calcium, Magnesium, Total Alkalinity, Iron, Total Dissolved Salts, Chloride, Sulphate E. Colli*, Total Coliforms*, Fluoride, and microbial testing for Legionella and Vibrio Cholera were assessed in surface water samples collected from the Ashwini and Giri rivers (Tables 4 and 5).

Table 4: Physiochemical parameters of samples of Ashwini River.

Table 5: Microbial parameters of Samples of Ashwini River.

Samples collected from Ashwini River were compared with the limits of IS Code. The Value of pH is 7.31 which the agreeable limit as compared to limits of IS: 10500-2012. Water is found to be turbid-free. Total hardness is found to be 160 mg/l, calcium is found to be 40 mg/l, Magnesium is 14.40 mg/l, Total Alkalinity is 80 mg/l, Iron is below the detection limit, Total dissolved salts is found out to be 205 mg/l, Chloride is found to be 35.46 mg/l, Sulphate is 96.29 mg/l, E.Colli and total coliforms are absent, fluoride is nil. All the parameters are within acceptable limits. Microbial testing shows absence of Legionella and Vibrio Cholera (Table 6).

Table 6: Physiochemical parameters of Samples of Giri River.

Samples collected from the Giri river were compared with the limits of IS Code. Samples collected from Ashwini River were compared with the limits of IS Code. The Value of pH is 7.31 which the agreeable limit as compared to limits of IS: 10500-2012. Water is found to be turbidfree. Total hardness is found to be 160 mg/l, calcium is found to be 40 mg/l, Magnesium is 14.40 mg/l, Total Alkalinity is 80 mg/l, Iron is below the detection limit, Total dissolved salts is found out to be 205 mg/l, Chloride is found to be 35.46 mg/l, Sulphate is 96.29 mg/l, E.Colli and total coliforms are absent, fluoride is nil. All the parameters are in acceptable limits. Microbial testing shows the absence of Legionella and Vibrio Cholerae (Table 7).

Table 7: Microbial testing (Samples of Giri River).

Ground water sampling

Groundwater sampling was done for assessing physiochemical parameters. Six sites were selected for sampling (Table 8).

Table 8: Water quality parameters for all sampling sites.

It has been found that the pH values range between 6.80 and 7.47. Total dissolved solids are in the range of 224 mg/l to 282 mg/l, total hardness in a range of 226 mg/l to 250 mg/l, total calcium in range of 38.6 mg/l to 58.8 mg/l, magnesium in a range of 22.4 mg/l to 29.6 mg/l, total alkalinity in a range of 230 mg/l to 289 mg/l, Chloride in a range of 12.6 mg/l to 14.9 mg/l, Sulphate in a range of 12.4 mg/l to 14.4 mg/l, Iron in a range of 0.12 to 0.14 mg/l, Zinc, Nitrate, Chromium, Manganese, Mercury, Cadmium, Fluoride, Selenium, Residual Chlorine are Not Detectable(ND) at all sites. E.coli is absent at 4 sites, Not Detectable (ND) at 2 sites and Total coliform is <2 at 4 sites and Not Detectable (ND) at 2 sites (Figure 5).

Figure 5: Comparison of pH at all sampling sites with acceptable limits.

It has been found that the pH values range between 6.80-7.47. The lowest value of pH has been recorded at location 5, which is agreeable according to Indian standards. Highest value was recorded at location 4 which is acceptable for drinking purposes (Figure 6).

Figure 6: Comparison of total dissolved solids at all sampling sites with acceptable limits.

Highest value of TDS of 282 mg/l is at Site 2 and lowest value is 224 mg/l at site 3. All values are within acceptable limits (Figure 7).

Figure 7: Comparison of total hardness at all sampling sites with acceptable limits.total hardness as CaCO3 at all sites is slightly more than the acceptableS limits but well within permissible limits.

Concentration of Calcium is within acceptable limits for drinking purpose. Highest concentration of 58.8mg/l is at site 4 and lowest concentration of 38.6 mg/l at site 2 (Figure 8).

Figure 8: Comparison of Calcium at all sampling sites with the acceptable limits.

The Concentration of chloride as Cl at all sampling sites is within acceptable limits.

The Concentration of Sulphate at sampling sites ranges between 12.4 mg/l to 14.4 mg/l. All values are within permissible limits (Figure 9-13).

Figure 9: Comparison of Mg++ at sampling sites with the acceptable limit.

Figure 10: Comparison of total alkalinity at all sampling sites.

Figure 11: Comparison of Chloride at all sampling sites.

Figure 12: Comparison of Sulphate at all sampling sites.

Figure 13: Comparison of Iron at all sampling sites.

Disease burden of the area

Unchecked industrialization, growing urbanization, and agricultural chemicals and pesticides have resulted in a slew of gastroenteritis, diarrhea, and hepatitis outbreaks [14]. As a result, microbiological testing of indicator organisms, such as coliforms, in drinking water sources is required, as well as research into their association with waterborne diseases. Results of microbial testing of water from Ashwini River and Giri river, are given in Tables IV and VI. Water samples collected from these rivers were analyzed for Legionella and Vibrio Cholerae.

Furthermore, to access the burden of waterborne diseases in the district, data was collected from the Chief medical officer’s office.s Data of the spread of Enteric fever, jaundice/viral hepatitis, and acute diarrhoel disease of 12 blocks of Solan namely Arki, Chandi (Krishangarh), Dhrampur(Solan), Nalagarh, Syri(Kandaghat), district hospital, Arki (Darlaghat), Chandi (Baddi), Dharampur (Kasauli), Nalagarh (Baddi), Nalagarh (Ramshahr), Chandi (Kasauli) from 2014 to 2018 has been collected from Chief Medical officer’s office (Table 9).

Table 9: Enteric Fever in year 2014 to 2018.

The number of cases of enteric fever has increased yearly. The lowest number of cases is recorded in 2014. The data shows a rise in number from 2040 to 2929, with an increase of 300 cases in 2018 from 2629 cases in 2017 (Figure 14).

Figure 14: Cases of enteric fever from year 2014 to 2018.

358 cases of jaundice and viral hepatitis were reported in 2014.

164 cases were reported in 2015. The data shows a rise in a number of cases to 966 in 2016. Only 4 cases are recorded in 2017 and 6 cases are reported in 2018 (Tables 10 and 11).

Table 10: Jaundice/Viral Hepatitis in year 2014 to 2018.

Table 11: Acute Diarrheal Disease in year 2014 to 2018.

Cases of acute diarrheal disease and gastroenteritis were 29923 cases in 2014, 35932 cases in 2015, 37714 cases in 2016 and 45975 cases in 2017. The data shows a rise in the number of cases from 29923 to 44615 (Figure 15 and 16).

Figure 15: Cases of jaundice and viral hepatitis from year 2014 to 2018.

Figure 16: Cases of acute diarrheal disease and gastroenteritis from year 2014 to 2018.

Conclusion

The research provides information on a wide range of water quality factors. The physical, chemical and microbiological properties of drinking water sources have been altered by water contamination owing to climate change and numerous anthropogenic activities. The utility of a health indicator, such as the disease incidence in the study area, was also investigated in this study. The parameters of water quality, as well as their health implications and allowable limitations, are discussed.

As a result, assessing the water quality of drinking water sources is critical for long-term human health management. Routine water sampling, seasonal microbiological assessments of water bodies, and giving information, education, and enhancing public awareness regarding water pollution have all been proposed to the administration, hygienic and sanitary conditions.

Climate change's effects on water quality should be quantified in future studies. Before consumption, the water must be purified further. Water quality of Areas near Industries should be accessed regularly. Health checkups and health surveys should be done regularly. People should be made aware of the safe use of water and minimize the wastage of water. This study should be considered as a stepping stone toward water management and related health risks.

Acknowledgements

The authors extend their appreciation to the Department of Civil Engineering, Jamia Millia Islamia for all the support during this work.

Funding Sources

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.s

Conflict of Interest

The author(s) declares no conflict of interest.

1. Tchobanoglous G, Peavy HS, Rowe DR (1985) . New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York. 696.

,

2. Shiklomanov IA (2000) . Water international 25: 11-32

Google Scholar,

3. Means III EG, Brueck T, Manning A, Dixon L (2002) . American Water Works Association 94: 34.
4. Siener R, Jahnen A, Hesse A (2004) . European journal of clinical nutrition. 58: 270-276.

, ,

5. Rosenzweig C, Casassa G, Karoly DJ, Imeson A, Liu C, et al. (2007) . 79-131.
6. Dalla Valle M, Codato E, Marcomini A (2007) . Chemosphere 67: 1287-1295.

, ,

7. Karavoltsos S, Sakellari A, Mihopoulos N, Dassenakis M, Scoullos MJ (2008) . Desalination 224: 317-329.

,

8. Whitehead PG, Wilby RL, Battarbee RW, Kernan M, Wade AJ (2009) . Hydrological sciences journal 54: 101-123.

,

9. Sinclair RG, Jones EL, Gerba CP (2009) . Journal of applied microbiology 107: 1769-1780.

, ,

10. Funari E, Manganelli M, Sinisi L (2012) . Annali dell'Istituto superiore di sanita 48: 473-487.

, ,

11. Khan S, Shahnaz M, Jehan N, Rehman S, Shah MT, Din I (2013) . Journal of cleaner production 60: 93-101.

,

12. Delpla I, Jung AV, Baures E, Clement M, Thomas O (2009) . Environment international 35: 1225-1233.

, ,

13. Langan SM (2009) . Skin therapy letter 14: 4-5.

,

14. Benelam B, Wyness L (2010) . Nutrition Bulletin 35: 3-25.

,

15. Jain N, Kotla S, Little BB, Weideman RA, Brilakis ES, et al. (2012) . The American journal of cardiology 109: 1510-1513.

, ,

16. McMahon GM, Mendu ML, Gibbons FK, Christopher KB (2012) . Intensive care medicine 38: 1834-1842.

, ,

17. Bennett SD, Walsh KA, Gould LH (2013) . Clinical infectious diseases 57: 425-433.

, ,

18. Krishna PM, Shankara BS, Reddy NS (2013. International Journal of Inorganic Chemistry.
19. Khanagavi J, Gupta T, Aronow W, Shah T, Garg J, et al. (2014) . Archives of Medical Science 10: 251-257.

, ,

20. Levy K, Woster AP, Goldstein RS, Carlton EJ (2016) . Environmental science & technology 50: 4905-4922.

, ,

21. Wasana H, Perera GD, Gunawardena PD, Fernando PS, Bandara J (2017) . Scientific Reports 7: 1-6.

, ,

22. Singh UK, Ramanathan AL, Subramanian V (2018) . Chemosphere 204: 501-513.

, ,

23. Singh AK, Bhardwaj SK, Devi S (2021) . Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 193: 1-1.

, ,

24. Sengupta P (2013) . International journal of preventive medicine 4: 866.

,

25. Zair Y, Kasbi-Chadli F, Housez B, Pichelin M, Cazaubiel M, Raoux F, Ouguerram K (2013) . Lipids in health and disease 12: 1-7.

, ,