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Oral and dental epidemiology is a crucial branch of public health that focuses on the distribution, determinants, and prevention of oral diseases across populations. The study of oral health trends helps in identifying risk factors, evaluating intervention strategies, and formulating public health policies to improve overall dental health. Common oral diseases such as dental caries, periodontal diseases, oral cancer, and dental trauma continue to impact populations worldwide. Understanding their epidemiology is vital in reducing their burden and ensuring equitable oral healthcare. Oral diseases are among the most prevalent non-communicable diseases (NCDs) globally, affecting billions of people. According to the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) study, untreated dental caries in permanent teeth is the most common health condition worldwide. Periodontal diseases, tooth loss, and oral cancers also contribute significantly to the burden of disease. Poor oral health can affect overall quality of life, nutrition, and even systemic health, as conditions such as diabetes and cardiovascular diseases have been linked to oral infections. Several factors influence oral health, including socio-economic status, access to healthcare, dietary habits, and personal oral hygiene practices. Inadequate access to dental care, especially in low- and middle-income countries, exacerbates the burden of oral diseases. Public health interventions such as water fluoridation, oral health education, dietary modifications, and tobacco control measures play a vital role in preventing and managing oral diseases [1].

Methodology

Global burden of oral diseases: Oral diseases are among the most prevalent non-communicable diseases (NCDs) worldwide, affecting billions of people. The Global Burden of Disease (GBD) study highlights that untreated dental caries in permanent teeth is the most common health condition globally. Periodontal diseases, tooth loss, and oral cancers also contribute significantly to the burden of disease [2,3]. Poor oral health can affect quality of life, nutrition, and even systemic health, as conditions such as diabetes and cardiovascular diseases have been linked to oral infections.

Dental caries: prevalence and risk factors: Dental caries, commonly known as cavities or tooth decay, is a multifactorial disease resulting from bacterial action, dietary sugars, and inadequate oral hygiene. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), nearly 3.5 billion people suffer from oral diseases, with untreated dental caries being the most common [4,5]. The disease is prevalent among children and adolescents but can affect individuals of all ages. Socioeconomic status, access to fluoride, dietary habits, and oral hygiene practices are key determinants of caries prevalence. Community-based fluoridation programs and sugar consumption reduction strategies have proven effective in reducing caries incidence.

Periodontal diseases: impact and trends: Periodontal diseases, including gingivitis and periodontitis, affect the supporting structures of the teeth. Severe periodontitis is one of the leading causes of tooth loss worldwide. The prevalence of periodontal disease increases with age, smoking, poor oral hygiene, and systemic conditions such as diabetes. Epidemiological studies indicate that nearly 10% of the global population suffers from severe periodontitis [6,7]. Preventive measures, including regular dental check-ups, smoking cessation, and proper oral hygiene, are essential in managing the condition.

Oral cancer: risk factors and distribution: Oral cancer is a significant global public health concern, with high morbidity and mortality rates. The disease is more prevalent in South Asia, particularly India and Sri Lanka, due to the widespread use of tobacco and betel quid chewing. Other risk factors include excessive alcohol consumption, human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, and prolonged exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation for lip cancer. Early detection through regular screenings and public awareness campaigns can significantly reduce the burden of oral cancer [8,9].

Dental trauma and malocclusion: Dental trauma, often resulting from accidents, sports injuries, or violence, is another important aspect of dental epidemiology. Children and adolescents are particularly vulnerable to dental injuries, which can lead to long-term complications if untreated. Malocclusion, or misalignment of teeth, is another common dental condition that affects aesthetics, function, and oral health. Orthodontic treatments are increasingly being sought to manage malocclusion, with studies suggesting that its prevalence varies across different populations.

Inequalities in oral health: Oral health disparities exist across different socio-economic groups, with low-income populations facing higher burdens of oral diseases. Access to dental care, affordability, education, and awareness significantly influence oral health outcomes. Many developing countries struggle with inadequate dental services, leading to increased prevalence of untreated dental conditions. Universal healthcare policies that integrate oral health into primary care systems can bridge these disparities and improve access to preventive and therapeutic care.

Preventive strategies and public health interventions

Public health initiatives play a vital role in reducing the burden of oral diseases. Key preventive strategies include:

Water fluoridation: Fluoridated water supplies have been instrumental in reducing dental caries prevalence.

Oral health education: Schools and community programs that promote oral hygiene practices can prevent many oral health issues.

Dietary interventions: Reducing sugar consumption and promoting healthy eating habits can decrease caries risk.

Regular dental check-ups: Early diagnosis and treatment can prevent complications.

Tobacco and alcohol control policies: Limiting tobacco and alcohol consumption can lower the incidence of oral cancers and periodontal diseases.

Future directions in dental epidemiology

Advancements in epidemiological research, digital health technologies, and artificial intelligence (AI) have the potential to revolutionize oral health care. AI-assisted diagnostics, tele-dentistry, and genomic research are emerging areas that can enhance the early detection and management of oral diseases. Additionally, integrating oral health policies within broader healthcare frameworks can lead to a more comprehensive approach to managing NCDs [10].

Conclusion

Oral and dental epidemiology provides valuable insights into the patterns, causes, and preventive strategies for oral diseases. Despite improvements in dental healthcare, oral diseases continue to pose a major public health challenge, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. Strengthening public health initiatives, promoting preventive care, and addressing social determinants of oral health can help reduce the global burden of dental diseases and improve overall health outcomes.

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