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Abstract

Periodontal diseases encompass a spectrum of inflammatory conditions affecting the supporting structures of the teeth, including the gingiva, periodontal ligament, cementum, and alveolar bone. These conditions range from simple gingivitis, characterized by inflammation of the gingiva, to more severe forms such as periodontitis, which can lead to the destruction of the supporting bone and eventual tooth loss if untreated. The etiology of periodontal diseases is multifactorial, involving the interplay of microbial, genetic, environmental, and systemic factors. Microbial plaque biofilm is considered the primary etiological agent, initiating an immune-inflammatory response in the host that can result in tissue destruction. Risk factors such as smoking, diabetes, genetic predisposition, and poor oral hygiene significantly modulate the progression and severity of periodontal diseases. Current research highlights the critical role of the host immune response in the pathogenesis of periodontitis, with cytokines, chemokines, and matrix metalloproteinases playing pivotal roles in tissue breakdown and disease progression. Furthermore, the bidirectional relationship between periodontal diseases and systemic conditions, such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and adverse pregnancy outcomes, underscores the importance of periodontal health in overall systemic health. Advances in molecular biology and genomics have provided deeper insights into the complex interactions between the host and microbial factors, opening new avenues for diagnostic and therapeutic approaches. Innovative treatment strategies are evolving, focusing not only on the mechanical removal of biofilm and calculus but also on modulating the host response and utilizing regenerative techniques to restore lost periodontal structures. The integration of laser therapy, photodynamic therapy, and host modulation agents are being explored to enhance treatment outcomes. Preventive measures, including effective oral hygiene practices, regular dental check-ups, and lifestyle modifications, play a crucial role in the management of periodontal diseases.

This comprehensive review aims to provide an in-depth understanding of the pathophysiology, risk factors, systemic implications, and current and emerging treatment modalities for periodontal diseases. By elucidating the intricate mechanisms underlying these conditions and highlighting the importance of an interdisciplinary approach, this review seeks to advance the clinical management and improve the prognosis of patients affected by periodontal diseases.