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Cellular and Molecular Biology 黑料网 1165-158X

 About Journal

 Journal founded by

Professor Raymond J. Wegmann,

2, rue de Rouhling 57200 Sarreguemines, France

Tel/Fax: +33 (0)3 87 02 99 62, E-mail:  editor@omicsonline.org

Cellular and Molecular Biology Journal was founded by Professor Raymond J. Wegmann. About 22 Nobel Prize Winners are Honorary Members of the CMB Editorial Board. The presence of so many Laureates testifies that Cellular and Molecular Biology is the driving force of scientific accomplishment in Life Sciences. Sir Hans Krebs, Nobel Prize Winner, confirmed to Professor Raymond J. Wegmann that "Cellular and Molecular Biology is the most excellent definition of interdisciplinary Life Science, without which any progress in research nor any discovery can be made in the future.

Cellular and Molecular Biology Journal is an invaluable platform for dissemination of contemporary experimental and applied research and current advances in cytology with greater emphasis on genetic methods. CMB has worldwide readership and aims to maintain higher standards of publications by inviting eminent researchers and academicians, prominent cell and molecular biologists from time to time.  The journal solicits new insights on relevance of cell and molecular biology to health sustainability and treatment of disease. Contributions on molecular mechanisms of gene regulation, disease resistance, DNA repair, pharmacological studies, evolutionary aspects, cancer therapy, nutrition, personalized medicine, vascular calcification are highly valued. The Journal publishes invited reviews from established authors from all over the world.  

For comprehensive coverage of the topics and specialization the Journal provides wide scope that includes but not restricted to Cellular Biology, life cycle, division, cell apoptosis, cell function, single cell biology, stem cell research, cell signaling, Cell differentiation, cell growth regulation of cell, Cell adhesion, cell movement, Intracellular trafficking, transcriptional regulation, mitosis, cellular differentiation, cell adhesion, cell motility, chemotaxis systems biology, biomarkers, transcriptomics, genetic engineering, cloning, transgene technology,  biochemical methods, enzyme technology, spectroscopy, immunoassays, fluorescence, analytical biochemistry, genetic medicine, proteomics, gene sequencing, genome data mining, mutations,  PCR and DNA arrays.

The archive page of the Journal is rich resource of knowledge for biochemists, biophysicists, geneticists, pathologists, physiologists, microbiologists, toxicologists, and general biologists. The Journal operates on a secure manuscript submission and editorial processing tracking system for efficient and transparent manuscript processing and publication. All published articles are permanently archived and available in HTML and PDF formats.

The submission are initially subjected to plagiarism checking tool for confirming the originality of content and then sent for independent external expert peer-review. Upon acceptance articles are published under Creative Commons Attribution 黑料网 license whereby the published articles are immediately available to the reader free of cost and without any restrictions.

The Journal is listed in wide indexing and abstracting database coverage including ICMJE, PUBLONS, PROQUEST SUMMONS, EBSCO A-Z, HAMDARD UNIVERSITY, REFSEEK, GENAMICS JOURNALSEEK, SHERPA ROMEO AND GOOGLE SCHOLAR. Articles funded by NIH, USA and specific European National Grants complying with public access policy are indexed by the Publisher at PubMed database.

Single-cell genomics:

Single-cell genomics involves analyzing the genetic material of individual cells to understand cellular diversity and dynamics. It includes techniques like single-cell RNA sequencing to measure gene expression, single-cell DNA sequencing to detect genetic variations, and single-cell epigenomics to study chromatin and DNA modifications. This approach reveals insights into cellular heterogeneity, identifies rare cell types, and provides detailed information on gene activity and genomic alterations at the single-cell level.

CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing

CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing is a revolutionary tool used to modify DNA with high precision. It involves two key components:

1. CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats): A sequence in the genome that guides the editing process.
2. Cas9 (CRISPR-associated protein 9): An enzyme that cuts the DNA at a specific location, as directed by the CRISPR sequence.

This system allows scientists to add, delete, or alter specific genes, enabling advancements in genetic research, disease modeling, and potential therapeutic interventions.

Epigenetic modifications

Epigenetic modifications are changes that affect gene expression and cellular function without altering the DNA sequence. These include DNA methylation, which can silence genes; histone modifications, which alter chromatin structure and gene accessibility; and non-coding RNAs, which regulate gene expression. These modifications play essential roles in development, disease, and cellular responses to environmental changes, and can be passed from one generation to the next.

Cell signaling pathways

Cell signaling pathways are complex networks of molecular interactions that enable cells to respond to external signals and regulate various cellular processes. These pathways involve the reception of signals by cell surface or intracellular receptors, which then trigger a cascade of biochemical events within the cell. This signaling cascade often includes the activation or inhibition of enzymes, changes in gene expression, and modifications of cellular structures. These pathways are crucial for maintaining cellular homeostasis, coordinating growth and development, and responding to environmental changes.

Mitochondrial dynamics

Mitochondrial dynamics refer to the continuous processes of mitochondrial fission and fusion that regulate the shape, size, and distribution of mitochondria within a cell. Fission involves the splitting of mitochondria into smaller units, while fusion merges them into larger structures. These processes are crucial for maintaining mitochondrial function, optimizing energy production, and responding to cellular stress. Proper mitochondrial dynamics are essential for cellular health, as disruptions can lead to various diseases and affect cellular metabolism and longevity.

RNA sequencing (RNA-seq)

RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) is a high-throughput technique used to analyze the transcriptome, or the complete set of RNA transcripts in a cell or tissue at a specific time. It involves converting RNA into complementary DNA (cDNA), which is then sequenced to determine the quantity and sequence of RNA molecules. RNA-seq provides detailed insights into gene expression levels, alternative splicing, and RNA modifications, allowing researchers to explore gene activity, identify novel transcripts, and understand cellular processes and disease mechanisms.

Proteomics and protein interactions

Proteomics is the large-scale study of proteins, including their functions, structures, and interactions within a cell or organism. It involves identifying and quantifying proteins, characterizing their post-translational modifications, and mapping their interactions. refer to the various ways proteins interact with each other to form complexes and networks that regulate cellular processes. Understanding proteomics and protein interactions provides insights into cellular functions, disease mechanisms, and potential therapeutic targets.

Cellular stress responses

Cellular stress responses are adaptive mechanisms by which cells detect and respond to various forms of stress, such as oxidative damage, heat, or nutrient deprivation. These responses involve activating stress signaling pathways, producing stress proteins (like heat shock proteins), and adjusting cellular processes to maintain homeostasis and prevent damage. By managing stress, cells can survive adverse conditions, repair damaged structures, and restore normal function, which is crucial for overall cellular health and function.

Stem cell biology

focuses on the study of stem cells, which are undifferentiated cells capable of self-renewal and differentiation into various specialized cell types. Stem cells play a vital role in development, tissue repair, and regeneration. Research in this field explores how stem cells maintain their unique properties, how they differentiate into different cell types, and how they can be harnessed for therapeutic purposes, such as treating diseases or repairing damaged tissues.

Molecular chaperones

Molecular chaperones are proteins that assist in the proper folding, assembly, and maintenance of other proteins within the cell. They help prevent misfolding and aggregation of proteins, which can lead to cellular dysfunction and diseases. By facilitating correct protein folding and refolding denatured proteins, molecular chaperones play a crucial role in maintaining cellular protein homeostasis and ensuring cellular health.

Cellular metabolism and bioenergetics

refer to the processes by which cells convert nutrients into energy and maintain metabolic balance. Cellular metabolism involves biochemical reactions that break down molecules to generate ATP, the energy currency of the cell, and synthesize essential biomolecules. Bioenergetics focuses on how cells manage energy flow and utilization, including mitochondrial function, energy production, and the regulation of metabolic pathways. These processes are fundamental for sustaining cellular functions, growth, and adaptation to environmental changes.

Intracellular trafficking

Intracellular trafficking is the process by which cells transport proteins, lipids, and other molecules to specific locations within the cell. This involves a network of vesicles, transport proteins, and cellular structures like the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and lysosomes. Intracellular trafficking ensures that cellular components are delivered to their proper destinations, supporting essential functions such as signaling, metabolism, and secretion. Proper trafficking is crucial for maintaining cellular organization and function, and disruptions can lead to various diseases.

Oncogene and tumor suppressor gene functions

Oncogenes are genes that, when mutated or overexpressed, drive the development and progression of cancer by promoting uncontrolled cell growth and division. Tumor suppressor genes, on the other hand, normally act to inhibit cell proliferation and maintain genomic stability. When these genes are mutated or deleted, their inhibitory functions are lost, leading to increased cell growth and tumor formation. Together, the balance between oncogene activation and tumor suppressor gene loss is critical in cancer development and progression.

Transcriptional regulation

is the process by which cells control the expression of genes at the transcription level. It involves various mechanisms, including the binding of transcription factors to specific DNA sequences, modifications of histones, and interactions with other regulatory proteins. These mechanisms determine whether genes are turned on or off, and to what extent they are expressed. Effective transcriptional regulation is crucial for cellular differentiation, development, and response to environmental signals.

Functional genomics

is the study of gene function and interactions by analyzing the effects of genetic variations and the roles of genes within the genome. It combines high-throughput technologies, such as gene expression profiling and genome-wide association studies, to understand how genes contribute to cellular processes, development, and disease. This approach helps to elucidate gene functions, regulatory networks, and the molecular mechanisms underlying complex traits and conditions.

MicroRNA regulation

MicroRNA regulation involves small non-coding RNA molecules that modulate gene expression by binding to complementary sequences on messenger RNAs (mRNAs). This binding typically leads to mRNA degradation or inhibition of translation, thereby reducing the production of specific proteins. MicroRNAs play crucial roles in various cellular processes, including development, differentiation, and stress responses, and their dysregulation is often associated with diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular disorders, and neurological conditions.

Cell cycle control

Cell cycle control refers to the mechanisms that regulate the progression of a cell through the stages of the cell cycle, including growth, DNA replication, and division. Key regulators include cyclins, cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), and checkpoint proteins that ensure proper timing and fidelity of cell cycle events. These control systems are crucial for maintaining genomic stability, coordinating cell division, and preventing uncontrolled growth. Disruptions in cell cycle control can lead to cancer and other diseases characterized by abnormal cell proliferation.

Nuclear-cytoplasmic transport

is the process by which molecules are transported between the nucleus and the cytoplasm of a cell. This transport is mediated by nuclear pore complexes (NPCs) embedded in the nuclear envelope. It involves various transport proteins and signaling molecules that facilitate the movement of macromolecules, such as proteins, RNAs, and ribonucleoprotein complexes, across the nuclear membrane. Proper nuclear-cytoplasmic transport is essential for regulating gene expression, maintaining cellular functions, and responding to environmental signals.

Epitranscriptomics

Epitranscriptomics is the study of chemical modifications on RNA molecules and their impact on gene expression and cellular functions. These modifications, such as methylation and pseudouridination, occur post-transcriptionally and can influence RNA stability, splicing, translation, and degradation. provides insights into how these modifications regulate gene expression and contribute to various biological processes and diseases, offering potential targets for therapeutic interventions.

Cellular aging and senescence

Cellular aging and senescence refer to the gradual decline in cellular function and proliferation capacity over time. Cellular aging involves the accumulation of molecular damage, reduced efficiency in repair mechanisms, and alterations in metabolic processes. Senescence is a state where cells cease to divide but remain metabolically active, often exhibiting changes like increased inflammation and altered gene expression. These processes contribute to tissue dysfunction, aging-related diseases, and overall organismal aging, and are areas of active research for potential anti-aging therapies and interventions.

Cellular Biology

Cell biology is a branch of biology that studies cells physiological properties, their structure, the organelles they contain, interactions with their environment, their life cycle, division, death and cell function. This is done both on a microscopic and molecular level. Cellular Biology is also referred to as Cytology. Cellular Biology mainly revolves around the basic and fundamental concept that cell is the fundamental unit of life. The most important concept of Cellular Biology is the cell theory which states mainly 3 points: a: All organisms are composed of one or more cells, b: The cell is the basic unit of life in all living things and c: All cells are produced by the division of preexisting cells.

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Cellular and Molecular Biology

Cell and Molecular Biology is an interdisciplinary field of science that deals with the fields of chemistry, structure and biology as it seeks to understand life and cellular processes at the molecular level. Molecular cell Biology mainly focuses on the determination of cell fate and differentiation, growth regulation of cell, Cell adhesion and movement, Intracellular trafficking. The relationship of signalling to cellular growth and death, transcriptional regulation, mitosis, cellular differentiation and organogenesis, cell adhesion, motility and chemotaxis are more complex topics under Cellular and Molecular Biology. Molecular biology explores cells, their characteristics, parts, and chemical processes, and pays special attention to how molecules control a cell’s activities and growth. The molecular components make up biochemical pathways that provide the cells with energy, facilitate processing “messages” from outside the cell itself, generate new proteins, and replicate the cellular DNA genome. To understand the behaviour of cells, it is important to add to the molecular level of description an understanding on the level of systems biology.

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Molecular Cell

Molecular cell is the study of how molecules interact to give rise to the properties of cells, their ability to grow, maintain themselves and divide. Molecular Cell examines how the interaction of macromolecules gives rise to life, i.e., to the functioning of living organisms. The integration of molecular structure, function, and behaviour can lead to a functional living cell. The structural dynamics of domains within macromolecules and subunits of macromolecular assemblies, through the integration of pathways and organelles, to the interactions of a cell with its immediate environment are elucidated. The integration generates new functional properties through the nonlinear, dynamic and spatial nature of the interactions between biological macromolecules. The perturbations of molecular structures and their interactions cause malfunction and disease.

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Molecular Genetics

Molecular genetics is a branch of genetics and molecular biology that deals with the structure and function of genes at a cellular and molecular level. One of the main achievements of molecular genetics is that now one can have the clarity about the chemical nature of the gene. Molecular genetics is concerned with the arrangement of genes on DNA molecule, the replication of DNA, the transcription of DNA into RNA, and the translation of RNA into proteins. Gene amplification, separation and detection, and expression are some of the general techniques used for molecular genetics.

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Cellular DNA Studies

Cellular DNA studies works with the function of the cellular DNA and its applications such as cell division. The morphological, molecular biology studies of the cellular DNA are analysed indepth in Cellular DNA studies. Cells contain the body’s hereditary material, the DNA. Most DNA is located in the cell nucleus (nuclear DNA), but a small amount of DNA can also be found in the mitochondria (mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA). An important property of DNA is that it can make copies of itself. Each strand of DNA in the double helix can serve as a template for duplicating the sequence of bases. This is important when cells divide as each new cell needs to have an exact copy of the DNA present in the old cell. Because the total length of cellular DNA in cells is up to a hundred thousand times the cell’s length, the packing of DNA into chromosomes is crucial to cell architecture. Histone protein helps the DNA to be packaged inside the cell. Bacterial chromosomes usually are circular DNA molecules that replicate from a single origin. The general structure of chromatin is remarkably similar in the cells of all eukaryotes including fungi, plants, and animals.

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Molecular Biotechnology

Molecular biotechnology is the use of laboratory techniques to study and modify nucleic acids and proteins for applications in areas such as human and animal health, agriculture, and the environment. Molecular biotechnology results from the convergence of many areas of research, such as molecular biology, microbiology, biochemistry, immunology, genetics, and cell biology. It is an exciting field fueled by the ability to transfer genetic information between organisms with the goal of understanding important biological processes or creating a useful product. The tools of molecular biotechnology can be applied to develop and improve drugs, vaccines, therapies, and diagnostic tests that will improve human and animal health. Molecular biotechnology has applications in plant and animal agriculture, aquaculture, chemical and textile manufacturing, forestry, and food processing.

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Cell Biology Techniques

Cell biology Techniques are used to study the physiological properties of cells, their structure, the organelles they contain, interactions with their environment, their life cycle, division, death and cell function. Few such techniques are General Biochemical and Biophysical Methods, , Fluorescence, Radiochemistry, Differential Precipitation of Proteins, Chromatography, Electrophoresis, Immunoassays, Hybridization and Blotting Techniques.

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Molecular Biochemistry

A common concern for the life and composition of the cell brings biologists and chemists together in the field of biochemistry-molecular biology. The vast and complex array of chemical reactions occurring in living matter and the chemical composition of the cell are the primary concerns of the biochemist. Life processes occurring at the molecular level, including the storage and transfer of genetic information and the interactions between cells and the viruses that infect them, are the investigatory concerns of the molecular biologist. Biochemistry and molecular biology are sub-disciplines within the larger, more general area of biological sciences. The study of biochemistry and molecular biology requires that students be genuinely interested and able to perform successfully in the "quantitative" sciences and that they have acquired a solid foundation in biology, chemistry, mathematics, and physics in their high school or community college careers. The cutting-edge research programs span the broad areas of biochemistry and molecular biology, covering both traditional and modern disciplines, including: Macromolecular structure and function, Gene regulation and signal transduction, Enzymology and metabolism, Bioinformatics and computational biology, Synthetic biology, Biophysics and analytical methods.

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Molecular and Cellular Proteomics

Molecular & Cellular Proteomics showcases contributions that describe the structural and functional properties of proteins and their expression, particularly with respect to developmental time courses. Emphasis is placed on determining how the presence or absence of proteins affect biological responses, and how the interaction of proteins with germane cellular partners allows them to function. Accelerating development of technology in the field of proteomics has led to the study of protein structure and function, its expression in normal cell and a diseased cell. The microarray technology has enabled the study of changes in mRNA. Molecular and cellular proteomics allows knowing the post-translation modification of the proteins and the contribution to the gene expression.

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Cellular Dynamics

Cellular Dynamics studies the dynamics reaction shown by the cell during various processes. In cellular dynamcis the reaction shown by the components of the cell during various process such as cell differentiaion and implications on cell functions are studied in cellular dynamics. Cells integrate information at multiple levels to rapidly adapt and respond to their enviroments, to coordinate efforts and communicate with their neighbors in tissues and organs, and to migrate or proliferate during development and disease. Cells employ a vast battery of proteins and protein complexes, as well as membrane-associated proteins, to achieve these sensory mechanisms and to transduce signals into action. Typical examples of coordination between signals and cellular dynamics include cell crawling, shape changes and response to potential pathogens. Cytokinesis, chemotaxis, asymmetric cell division or changes in synaptic strength depend upon spatially localized, temporally dynamic biochemical reactions. Biological mechanisms that underpin these cellular dynamics occur at multiple levels, from genesis of cell shape by rearranging the cortical cytoplasm, to assembling protein complexes that choreograph membrane budding and trafficking, to transport of small molecules and fluxes in signaling cascades.

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Biomolecular Structure and Function

Biomolecular structure is complicated folded, three-dimensional shape that is formed by a protein, DNA, or RNA molecule. The structure of these molecules is frequently decomposed into primary structure, secondary structure, tertiary structure, and quaternary structure. Biomolecules includes large macromolecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, and nucleic acids, as well as small molecules such as primary metabolites, secondary metabolites, and natural products. Biomolecular structure & function comprises of study and research related to computational science, atomic structural biology, bioinformatics, virtual drug design, genomics and biological networks.

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Cell Cycle

The cell cycle or cell-division cycle is the series of events that take place in a cell leading to its division and duplication (replication) that produces two daughter cells. In prokaryotes which lack a cell nucleus, the cell cycle occurs via a process termed binary fission. The cell cycle, most prominently called as cell-division refers to the series of events which take place inside a cell during the time of cell division. During cell division, a cell divides and then duplicates i.e forms its copies. In prokaryotic cells, which lack nucleus, the cell cycle occurs by a process of binary fission. The cell cycle consists of two stages viz. a: Mitosis and b: Meiosis. Mitosis refers to the division of all body cells except germ cells while in meiosis the division of the germ cells takes place. During mitosis, the chromosome number remains the same as that of the parent cell while during meiosis, the chromosome number is reduced to half the number of the parent cell.

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Methods and Techniques in Molecular Biology

Molecular Biology methods used to study the molecular basis of biological activity. Most commonly used methods are protein methods, immunostaining methods, nucleic acid methods. These methods used to explore cells, their characteristics, parts, and chemical processes, and pays special attention to how molecules control a cell’s activities and growth.

Molecular Biology Techniques include DNA cloning, cut and paste DNA, bacterial transformation , transfection, chromosome integration, cellular screening, cellular culture, extraction of DNA, DNA polymerase DNA dependent, reading and writing DNA, DNA sequencing, DNA synthesis, molecular hybridization, rewriting DNA: mutations, random mutagenesis, point mutation, chromosome mutation. Most important techniques are Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), Expression cloning, Gel electrophoresis, Macromolecule blotting and probing, Arrays (DNA array and protein array).

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Cellular Signalling

Cellular Signalling is a mechanism by which cell interacts with environment and other cells around them. In this process stimuli are transmitted via a Signaling cascade to effector molecules that orchestrate the appropriate response. Receptors which are usually glycoprotein on the plasma membrane of the cells help to detect signals. The stimuli bind to the receptor because of the complementary shape and this integrates a chain of reaction within the cell leads to response. Various hormones and medicated drugs are used as a Signaling molecule for the treatment of various disorders as use of insulin through hormone mediated cell Signaling pathway to lower the blood glucose level.

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Cell synthesis

Cell synthesis involves the synthesis of various proteins and chemicals that are vital for the development and functioning of the cell. Cell synthesis is essential for the growth and development of the cell. Synthesis phase also known as S-phase is a part of cell cycle starts with the replication of DNA and ends when all the chromosomes has been replicated that is each chromosome has two sister chromatids. It occurs between G1 phase and G2 phase. This phase results in the effectively doubled quantity of DNA and the synthesis is completed very quickly because of the sensitivity of exposed base pairs to harmful external factors such as mutagens. Precision and accuracy of this phase is mandatory to prevent genetic abnormalities sometimes which lead to cell death or disease.

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Cell Death: Apoptosis

The procedure of programmed cell death, or apoptosis, is by and large portrayed by particular morphological qualities and vitality subordinate biochemical components. Cell death is a vital process of the cell to maintain the ratio of the cells such as cell movement. The cells of a multicellular organism are members of a highly organized community. The number of cells in this community is highly regulated and it done not only by controlling the rate of cell division, but also by controlling the rate of cell death. If cells are no longer needed, they destroy themselves by activating an intracellular death program. This process is called Apoptosis. The amount of apoptosis that occurs in developing and adult animal tissues can amaze us. If one will observe vertebrate nervous system, up to half of the nerve cells normally die soon after they are formed. In a healthy adult human, billions of cells die in the bone marrow and intestine every hour.

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Cell Regeneration

Cell regeneration is the science in which the procedure of reestablishment, reclamation and development that makes genomes, cells, living beings and biological systems. Cell regeneration is a characteristic changes or occasions that cause aggravation or harm. Some parts of our bodies can repair themselves quite well after injury, but others don’t repair at all. We certainly can’t regrow a whole leg or arm, but some animals can regrow their body parts. Regeneration occurs in both human and animals. In Humans regrowth of a damaged organ part from the remaining tissue is known as regeneration. Humans are able to regenerate some organs, for example the liver. If a part of organ is lost by disease or injury, the organ grows back to its original size. Biggest example of regeneration in humans is our skin as it is constantly being renewed and repaired. Regeneration also occurs in animals. There are few animals that can regenerate their body parts. For example, flatworm or planarian can regenerate both the head from a tail piece, and the tail from a head piece.

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Stem Cell Biology

is the study of undifferentiated biological cells that can differentiate into specialized cells and can divide to produce more stem cells. They are found in multicellular organisms. In mammals, there are two broad types of stem cells, embryonic stem cells, which are isolated from the inner cell mass of blastocysts and adult stem cells, which are found in various tissues. In adult organisms, stem cells and progenitor cells act as a repair system for the body, replenishing adult tissues. In a developing embryo, stem cells can differentiate into all the specialized cells ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm but also maintain the normal turnover of regenerative organs, such as blood, skin or intestinal tissues. Stem cells serve to renew tissue throughout an individual’s postnatal life by replacing the cells that are lost owing to everyday wear and tear in our bodies.

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Cell Biology Junctions

A cell junction (or intercellular bridge) is a sort of structure that exists inside the tissue of some multicellular organisms, such as animals. Cell junctions comprises of multiprotein complexes that provide contact between neighbouring cells or between a cell and the extracellular matrix. Cell junctions can be divided into two types: those that link cells together, also called intercellular junctions (tight, gap, adherens, and desmosomal junctions), and those that link cells to the extracellular matrix (focal contacts/adhesion plaques and hemidesmosomes). These junctions play a prominent role in maintaining the integrity of tissues in multicellular organisms and some, if not all of them, are involved in signal transduction.

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Gene Expression and Regulation

Gene expression is the process by which the genetic code - the nucleotide sequence - of a gene is used to direct protein synthesis and produce the structures of the cell. Genes that code for amino acid sequences are called as Structural genes. The process of gene expression involves two main stages as Transcription: the production of messenger RNA (mRNA) by the enzyme RNA polymerase, and the processing of the resulting mRNA molecule. Translation: the use of mRNA to direct protein synthesis, and the subsequent post-translational processing of the protein molecule. Any step of gene expression may be modulated, from the DNA-RNA transcription step to post-translational modification of a protein.

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